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CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

The principal fuels used at present for making steam, are coal, coke, wood, charcoal, peat, mineral oil, and natural and artificial gas.

All kinds of fuel may, in fact, be virtually subdivided into three classes: solid, liquid, and gaseous.

All coals seem to be derived from vegetable origin and their differences appeared as a result of the varying conditions under which they were formed. Anthracite coal consists almost entirely of carbon and inorganic matters; it contains little or no hydrocarbon at all. Some varieties appear to approach graphite in their characteristics and are burned with difficulty unless at first mixed with other coals. Good anthracite is hard, compact, and lustrous. It burns with very little flame unless it is moist, and gives a very intense fire, free from smoke. Even when carefully used, it is liable to break up at high temperatures and, in this way, the fine pieces may be lost with the ash. Semi-anthracite contains some hydrocarbon, is less dense than anthracite, ignites at once, and burns readily with a short flame.

Bituminous coals contain a large and varying per cent of hydrocarbons or bituminous matter. Their physical properties and behaviour, when burning, vary widely so that classification is difficult, though at least three kinds may be distinguished as follows: dry bituminous coals, caking bituminous coals and, at last, long-flaming bituminous coals. The latter has a strong tendency to produce smoke; some do and some do not cake at all while burning.

Charcoal is made by charring wood; it is no longer used for making steam but is widely applied for special metallurgical purposes.

Practicum

A

GRAVITY WAVE ANALYSIS FROM LIGO PROTOTYPE. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO), when fully deployed, will consist of two facilities (Hanford, WA and Livingston, LA). At each site laser beams pass up and down two perpendicular 4-km-long vacuum pipes, reflecting repeatedly from mirrors hung from wires. The presence of a passing gravitational wave would announce itself by a flexing of space-time which would very slightly lengthen the path of light in one arm and shorten the path in the other arm, causing a subtle change in the interference pattern made by the converging light beams from the two arms. The full LIGO, by about November 2001, should be able to detect a strain, defined as the fractional change in the position of the mirrors divided by the length of the arm (4 km), of 10^-21. This is the expected disturbance one expects from the gravity waves emitted by the coalescence of two solar-sized stars at a distance from Earth of 30-50 million light years. But before LIGO scientists possess their full instrument, they do have a 40-m prototype at Caltech, built for doing engineering studies but also capable of sensing gravity waves, albeit with the lesser strain sensitivity of a few times 10^-19. Thus the LIGO team, while testing methods for searching (directly via gravity waves) for binary coalescences, have thereby rendered an upper limit for such events of less than one every two hours in our galaxy. This result is useful for the test of the procedures, but is not significant for astronomers, who have previously established more stringent upper bounds with electromagnetic waves (visible and radio).

AT THE INTERANTIONAL PHYSICS OLYMPIAD, held in July, the US team had its second-best showing since it started competing in 1986, with 3 gold medals and 2 silver medals brought home by the 5 high school students who participated. In informal rankings, the US placed 3^rd out of the 62 countries that competed, after Russia and Iran. Taking place this year in Padua, Italy, where Galileo discovered the 4 Jupiter moons named after him, the Olympiad contains two days of grueling theoretical and experimental problems amounting to what is the world’s most difficult high-school physics test. For example, the students had to compute the precise trajectory of a space probe that uses Jupiter’s gravity as a slingshot – a technique used in real life spacecraft such as Cassini. Gold medalists included Peter Onyisi (Arlington, VA), who had the tenth highest overall score out of the approximately 300 competitors at the Olympiad, Benjamin Mathews (Dallas, TX), and Andrew Lin (Wallingford, CT). Silver medalists include Jason Oh (Baltimore, MD) and Natalia Toro (Boulder, CO), who earlier this year also became the youngest person (at 14 years of age) ever to win the top prize of the Intel (formerly Westinghouse) Science Talent Search.

IN-PLANE-GATE (IPG) TRANSISTORS can be excavated using nanomachining techniques. IPG transistors, in which the source, drain, and gate all lie in a plane rather than in a sandwich, might be especially useful for high-frequency applications. Scientists at the University of Hannover have carved out an IPG structure in a semiconductor surface using the probe from an atomic force microscope. The probe makes an incision into the material extending down about halfway toward a buried interface where, lodged between GaAs and AlGaAs layers, a reservoir of electrons is confined to a plane. The incisions from above do not penetrate into this two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) but they do shape (and can even pinch off) the conduction of the electrons. The Hannover researchers have also used their inscribing approach to make single-electron transistors (SETs), devices that register the coming and going of single electrons.

B

Larry Elliott and John Vidal in Seattle

Wednesday December 1, 1999

Riot police used red pepper gas to tackle thousands of anti-free trade activists yesterday as the biggest demonstration in the United States since the end of the Vietnam war erupted into violence.

Police closed off the downtown area of Seattle as 100,000 demonstrators marched on the hall where the opening ceremonies of the world trade talks were due to start and broke though police cordons into the main conference hotel.

Mounted police, armoured cars and an extra 3,000 officers had been deployed in an attempt to prevent the activists form disrupting the World Trade Organization’s ministerial meeting. But the massive operation failed from the outset with VIPs like the UN secretary general, Kofi Annan, unable to get to the opening sessions.

Several British ministers and delegates were caught up in the violence. The trade and industry secretary, Stephen Byers, told journalists: “I have been tear gassed,” as he arrived at the conference centre.

Glenys Kinnock MEP, who witnessed the disturbances, complained about the “intimidating” behaviour of the riot police, while the development secretary, Clare Short, was trapped behind police lines inside the Sheraton hotel.

Amid fears of an assassination attempt on the WTO’s director-general, Mike Moore, security around the delegates had been stepped up massively. Hospitals brought in extra supplies of anti-nerve gas drugs, fearing that the largely peaceful protest would be infiltrated by rightwing US terrorist groups.

Observing the carnival spirit of much of the demonstration earlier in the day, one Seattle resident said: “This is the nearest we get to Mardi Gras.” Protesters were dressed as turtles, Father Christmases, cows and butterflies and were serenaded by Beethoven’s 5^th symphony, Tina Turner and drumming.

However, pepper gas was used later when several hundred protesters refused to move from the junction of Union and 6^th streets. In separate incidents, demonstrations surrounded a police car and rolled barrels down a hill. Shop windows were broken and many arrests made.

One of the Chinese observers to the talks said: “I think this is as significant for the west as Tiananmen Square was for us. It is unprecedented. Governments will have to respond.”

Demonstrators have been planning protests in Seattle for several months to mark their opposition to the attempt to start a new round of trade liberalization talks. Representing a wide range of concerns in many countries, the groups include environmentalists, labor unions, farmers, churches, consumer groups, human rights bodies and anarchists.

Undeterred by torrential rain, the protest marches started before dawn and were expected to last all day.

Delegates in the Sheraton were barricaded in by a human chain, while at least five different US government security agencies were present, including the FBI, CIA and Secret Services. All were issued with gas masks.

Security forces will remain on high alert today, when the US president, Bill Clinton, arrives to break the logjam at the talks themselves.

The protesters say that the WTO presides over a world trading system that is skewed in favor of rich countries and multinational companies, that it harms the environment and acts against the interests of consumers.

Mr Moore has admitted that the WTO needs to reform but says further liberalization is the key to raising living standards and protecting the environment. He is seeking to focus the next set of talks on helping the least developed countries.

He said: “I hope the debate is peaceful. It is difficult to maintain a dialogue if people do foolish things that disrupt the flow of information. That is disappointing.”

Riotous clashes between police and hundreds of protesters at Euston station last night marred the end of a rally tying in with a series of worldwide protests against the WTO summit, Will Woodward writes.

A police officer was rugby-tackled to the ground by a demonstrator as people began to run out of the station complex. Bottles, cans and wooden poster poles were thrown at riot police who mounted a barricade. A police van was overturned and set alight.

As the flames started to engulf the van, another wave of riot police with shields raised stormed forward, forcing protesters, obscured by thick toxic smoke, back from the vehicle.

Until then the demonstration had been relatively peaceful, despite sporadic “kill the bill” chants from some of the estimated 2,000 crowd.

The organizers, a loose “disorganization” called Reclaim the Streets, had made the Euston rally the centre of the protest to condemn tube privatization as “the most blatant example of market madness in London”.

C

Wisdom That Comes With Age

A wise old gentleman retired and purchased a modest home near a junior high school. He spent the first few weeks of his retirement in peace and contentment. Then a new school year began. The very next afternoon three young boys, full of youthful, after-school enthusiasm, came down his street, beating merrily on every trash can they encountered. The crashing percussion continued day after day, until finally the wise old man decided it was time to take some action.

The next afternoon, he walked out to meet the young percussionists as they banged their way down the street. Stopping them, he said, “You kids are a lot of fun. I like to see you express your exuberance like that. In fact, I used to do the same thing when I was your age. Will you do me a favour? I’ll give you each a dollar if you’ll promise to come around every day and do your thing.” The kids were elated and continued to do a bang-up job on the trashcans.

After a few days, the old-timer greeted the kids again, but this time he had a sad smile on his face. “This recession’s really putting a big dent in my income,” he told them. “From now on, I’ll only be able to pay you 50 cents to beat on the cans.”

The noisemakers were obviously displeased, but they did accept his offer and continued their afternoon ruckus. A few days later, the wily retiree approached them again as they drummed their way down the street.

“Look,” he said, “I haven’t received my Social Security check yet, so I’m not going to be able to give you more than 25 cents. Will that be okay?”

“A lousy quarter?” the drum leader exclaimed. “If you think we’re going to waste our time, beating these cans around for a quarter, you’re nuts! No way, mister. We quit!”

And the old man enjoyed peace and serenity for the rest of his days.

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A guy bought his wife a beautiful diamond ring for Christmas. A friend of his said, “I thought she wanted one of those pretty 4-wheel drive vehicles.”

“She did,” he replied, “But where in the world was I going to find a fake jeep!!”

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A woman met her husband at the train station after work for the ride home. He looked haggard, so she asked, “Rough day?”

“You bet it was,” he groaned. “Our computers were down, and we had to think all day long.”

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The patient was lying in bed, still groggy from the effects of the recent operation. His doctor came in, looking very glum.

“I can’t be sure what’s wrong with you,” the doctor said. “I think it’s the drinking.”

“Okay,” the patient said. “Can we get an opinion from a doctor who’s sober?”

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There once was a priest who had to spend the night in a hotel. He asked the hat check girl to come up to his room for dinner. After a while he started making passes, when she stopped him and reminded him he was a holy man.

“It’s OK,” he replied, “it’s written in the Bible.”

So after a wild night of sex, the hat check girl asked to see where in the Bible it says it’s okay to have wild, passionate sex.

The priest picks up the Bible off the dresser opens to the first page where someone wrote in pencil: “The hat check girl puts out!”

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A young man visiting a dude ranch wanted to be “macho”, so he went out walking with one of the hired hands. As they were walking through the barnyard, the visitor tried starting a conversation: “Say, look at that big bunch of cows.”

The hired hand replied, “Not ‘bunch,’ but ‘herd’.”

“Heard what?”

“Herd of cows.”

“Sure, I’ve heard of cows. There’s a big bunch of ‘em right over there.”