отия УМКД

Interrogative pronouns

	Case	Old English	Middle English	Modern English
Masculine/Feminine (Person)	Nominative	hwā	who	who
	Accusative	hwone / hwæne	whom	who / whom¹
	Dative	hwām / hwǣm	whom	who / whom¹
	Instrumental
	Genitive	hwæs	whos	whose
Neuter (Thing)	Nominative	hwæt	what	what
	Accusative	hwæt	what / whom
	Dative	hwām / hwǣm	what / whom
	Instrumental	hwȳ / hwon	why	why
	Genitive	hwæs	whos	whose²

¹ - In some dialects who is used where Formal English only allows whom, though variation among dialects must be taken into account.

² - Usually replaced by of what (postpositioned).

First person personal pronouns

	Case	Old English	Middle English	Modern English
Singular	Nominative	iċ	I / ich / ik	I
	Accusative	mē / meċ	me	me
	Dative	mē	me	me
	Genitive	mīn	min / mi	my, mine
Plural	Nominative	wē	we	we
	Accusative	ūs / ūsiċ	us	us
	Dative	ūs	us	us
	Genitive	ūser / ūre	ure / our	our, ours

(Old English also had a separate dual, wit ("we two") etcetera; however, no later forms derive from it.)

Second person personal pronouns

Old and Middle English singular to the Modern English archaic informal

	Case	Old English	Middle English	Modern English
Singular	Nominative	þū	þu / thou	thou (you)
	Accusative	þē / þeċ	þé / thee	thee (you)
	Dative	þē	þé / thee	thee (you)
	Genitive	þīn	þi / þīn / þīne / thy /thin / thine	thy, thine (your)
Plural	Nominative	ġē	ye / ȝe / you	you
	Accusative	ēow / ēowiċ	you, ya
	Dative	ēow	you, ya
	Genitive	ēower	your	your, yours

Note that the ye/you distinction still existed, at least optionally, in Early Modern English: "Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" from the King James Bible.

Here the letter þ (interchangeable with ð in manuscripts) corresponds to th.

Formal and informal forms of the second person singular and plural

Old English

Middle English

Modern English

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Case

Formal

Informal

Formal

Informal

Formal

Informal

Formal

Informal

Formal

Informal

Formal

Informal

Nominative

þū

ġē

you

thou

you

Accusative

þē / þeċ

ēow / ēowiċ

thee

you

Dative

þē

ēow

Genitive

þīn

ēower

your, yours

thy, thine

your, yours

(Old English also had a separate dual, ȝit ("ye two") etcetera; however, no later forms derive from it.)

Third person personal pronouns

	Case	Old English	Middle English	Modern English
Masculine Singular	Nominative	hē	he	he
	Accusative	hine	him	him
	Dative	him	him	him
	Genitive	his	his	his
Feminine Singular	Nominative	hēo	heo / sche / ho / he / ȝho	she
	Accusative	hīe	hire / hure / her / heore	her
	Dative	hire	hire / hure / her / heore	her
	Genitive	hire	hir / hire / heore / her / here	her, hers
Neuter Singular	Nominative	hit	hit / it	it
	Accusative	hit	hit / it / him
	Dative	him	hit / it / him
	Genitive	his	his / its	its
Plural	Nominative	hīe	he / hi / ho / hie / þai / þei	they
	Accusative	hīe	hem / ham / heom / þaim / þem / þam	them
	Dative	him	hem / ham / heom / þaim / þem / þam	them
	Genitive	hira	here / heore / hore / þair / þar	their, theirs

(The origin of the modern forms is generally thought to have been a borrowing from Old Norse forms þæir, þæim, þæira. The two different roots co-existed for some time, although currently the only common remnant is the shortened form 'em. Cf. also the demonstrative pronouns.)

Semantic
Notion	Deffenition	Examples
Semiotic	is a science of signs and/or sign systems
syntactic	is the study of meaning. It is a wide subject within the general study of language. An understanding of semantics is essential to the study of language acquisition (how language users acquire a sense of meaning, as speakers and writers, listeners and readers) and of language change (how meanings alter over time). It is important for understanding language in social contexts, as these are likely to affect meaning, and for understanding varieties of English and effects of style. It is thus one of the most fundamental concepts in linguistics
Synonym	Is forms of Greek nouns which mean, respectively, “same name”	Compassion-sympathy As Pleased as Punch-comfortable-glad-gratified-pleased-satisfied(довольный)
Antonym	Is forms of Greek nouns which mean, respectively, “opposed (or different) name”.	big/little, clever/stupid, brave/cowardly, hot/cold, beautiful/ugly)
Meaning	Can be more or less described as a component of the word through which a concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with the ability of denoting real object
Symbol	word
Referent	What word denotes
Thought of reference	notion
Semaseology\ Semantic	Is a branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning/
Semantic structure of the word	Is the assumed structure of its inner from
Denotative component(denotation)	Is the primary or literal meaning of the word expressing the conceptual content.
Connotative component(connotation)	Is the secondary or additional meaning of the word or its implication giving a more or less full picture of the meaning.	Mouse-a kind of roden animal\a device to control computer
Transference	Is the process of development of a new meaning of the word. There are 2 types of transference:metaphor,metonymy.
Metaphor	Is the transference based on resemblance or similarity	Similarity in appearance +mouse(a kind of rodent animal)_a device to control comp.. +eye(part of body)_eye of storm +drop(of water)_eardrop Similarity in position +foot(part of body)_foot of the tree +head(part of body)_head of the plane Similarity in function +hand(part of body)_hand of watch\clock +key(to the door)_key of the success\exercise Quality,characteristic +star(celestial body)_movie\pop star +fox(an animal)_that woman is very foxy Size +sea(large water area covering the earth)_sea of trouble
Metonymy	Is the transference based on contiguity or reladness.	Name of separate past a whole thing or vice versa +lend me a hand +2 heads are better than 1
Generalization\ broadening	Is the extension of semantic capacity of a word during the process of historical development of the word.	To arrive\to come To visit\to attend
Specialization\narrowing	Is the restriction of semantic capacity of a word during the process of historical development of the word.	Deer-olen’\an animal,kind of meat, kind of man Queen\wife,woman,wife of king.
Degeneration\degradation	It is means developing from positive to negative meaning.	Duck –a bird\a girl,who push the lips Dark wood-a dark place\a person,who know nothing (his head like as dark wood)
Elevation	It means developing from negative to positive
Homonyms	Two or more words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution and in many cases origin	fast in such combinations as run fast ‘quickly’ and stand fast ‘firmly’.
common	They most often used
Proper homonyms	Homonyms proper are words, as I have already mentioned, identical in pronunciation and spelling, like fast and liver above. Other examples are: The important point is that homonyms are distinct words: not different meanings within one word.	back n ‘part of the body’ – back adv ‘away from the front’ – back v ‘go back’;ball n ‘a gathering of people for dancing’ – ball n ‘round object used in games’; bark n ‘the noise made by dog’ – bark v ‘to utter sharp explosive cries’ – bark n ‘the skin of a tree’ – bark n ‘a sailing ship’; base n ‘bottom’ – base v ‘build or place upon’ – base a ‘mean’; bay n ‘part of the sea or lake filling wide-mouth opening of land’ – bay n ‘recess in a house or room’ – bay v ‘bark’ – bay n ‘the European laurel’.
homophones	Homophones are words of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning:	air – hair; arms – alms; buy – by; him – hymn; knight – night; not – knot; or – oar; piece – peace; rain – reign; scent – cent; steel – steal; storey – story; write – right and many others. “How much is my milk bill?” “Excuse me, Madam, but my name is John.” On the other hand, whole sentences may be homophonic: The sons raise meat – The sun’s rays meet. To understand these one needs a wider context. If you hear the second in the course of a lecture in optics, you will understand it without thinking of the possibility of the first.
Homographs	Homographs are words different in sound and in meaning but accidentally identical in spelling	bow [bou] – bow [bau]; lead [li:d] – lead [led]; row [rou] – row [rau]; sewer [‘soue] – sewer [sjue]; tear [tie] – tear [tee]; wind [wind] – wind [waind] and many more.
B. Classification given by A.I. Smirnitsky
Full homonyms	Full lexical homonyms are words, which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm.	Match n – a game, a contest Match n – a short piece of wood used for producing fire Wren n – a member of the Women’s Royal Naval Service Wren n – a bird
Partial homonyms	Partial homonyms are subdivided into three subgroups: Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words, which belong to the same category of parts of speech. Their paradigms have only one identical form, but it is never the same form Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech, which have identical form in their paradigms. C. Partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms.	А. (to) found v- found v (past indef., past part. of to find) (to) lay v-lay v (past indef. of to lie) (to) bound v- bound v (past indef., past part. of to bind) В. Rose n-Rose v (past indef. of to rise) Maid n-Made v (past indef., past part. of to make) Left adj-Left v (past indef., past part. of to leave) Bean n-Been v (past part. of to be) One num-Won v (past indef., past part. of to win) to lie (lay, lain) v to lie (lied, lied) v to hang (hung, hung) v to hang (hanged, hanged) v to can (canned, canned) (I) can (could)
Borrowing	is source of homonyms. A borrowed word may, in the final stage of its phonetic adaptation, duplicate in form either a native word or another borrowing.	in the group of homonyms rite, n – to write, v – right, adj the second and the third words are of native origin whereas rite is a Latin borrowing (<Lat. ritus).
conversion	which are the same in sound and spelling but refer to different categories of parts of speech, are called lexico-grammatical homonyms.	comb, n – to comb, v; pale, adj – to pale, v; to make, v – make, n comb, n – to comb, v; pale, adj – to pale, v; to make, v – make, n are numerous in the vocabulary.
Shortening	is a further type of word building, which increases the number of homonyms.	Fan, n in the sense of ‘enthusiastic admirer of some kind of sport or of an actor, singer, etc.’ is a shortening produced fromfanatic. Its homonym is a Latin borrowing fan, n which denotes an implement for waving lightly to produce a cool current of air.

First page of Beowulf in Cotton Vitellius A. xv

КАЗАХСКИЙ ГУМАНИТАРНО-ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Высшая школа международного права и международных отношений

Кафедра общего языкознания и переводческого дела

Утверждаю

Проректор-Директор ВШ МПиМО

к.ю.н., профессор

Калишева Ж.Г.

_____________________

«___» _____________2012 ж.

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