Word-formation

Word-formation is a branch of lexicology which studies patterns of derivation, categories and types of word-formation devices and the lexical units built with the help of these devices. Word-formation is considered to be a simple nomination type. It is also the most productive way of vocabulary enrichment in the English language.

3.1 WORD-FORMATION IN THE NOMINATION SYSTEM OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Nomination /Simple Nomination vs Nomination of the Second Order / Primary vs Secondary Nomination / Classifications of Word-Formation Types / Linear and Non-Linear Derivation / Word-Combinations and Phraseologisms / Borrowing

Nomination is the process of naming things. In this process the facts of extralinguistic reality find their place in the language system and structure.

“In gnoseological-semantic aspect nomination is a process of turning the facts of extralinguistic reality into the system and structure of language, into language meanings that reflect common experience in the consciousness of the native speakers of a given language” (Уфимцева, 1977, с. 13).

Nomination takes place on the lexical (words and word-combinations) and syntactic levels of language, as well as on the text level, thus nomination units of different levels are described (Кубрякова, 1981, с. 76). Words and word-combinations are considered to be the units of simple nomination, “as long as this nomination type is a mere process of recording isolated features and qualities, that is static denotations” (Телия, 1977, с. 132).The sentence is regarded to be the nomination unit of the second order, and “nomination on the text level already deals with combinatorics, that is operations with complex units of nomination” (Телия, 1977, с. 133). The units of this order do not fall within limits of lexicology.

In the act of nomination the word meaning arises together with its ability to name things (nominative function). “The nomination relationship itself can be regarded in two perspectives: onomasiological, when the signified actual (an object, phenomenon, event, quality, relationship, etc.) is taken to be the baseline and receives this or that name and meaning, or semasiological, when the baseline is the sense of the name and its projections to the signified actual, that inter alia allows us to consider the application sphere of the meaning of already existing nomination units in accordance with either their own signifieds or the signifieds that are new to them” (Телия, 1981, с. 96).

The formation act of an absolutely new unit is called primary (direct, unmotivated) nomination. There are very few neologisms in the current English language that are completely new words, like quark or keds. Another example of primary derivation is onomatopoeic words that are formed by means of copying natural sounds, like bark, oink, meow, roar, Weero, chickadee, cuckoo, chiffchaff. In contemporary linguistics the units whose etymology is forgotten are considered to be unmotivated as well.

The majority of English neologisms of the recent century are motivated (the units of secondary nomination). The units of secondary nomination either reflect the idea about an extralinguistic object indirectly (e.g. to overcharge), or describe it metaphorically (e.g. to be fired).

Secondary nomination is carried out thanks to reconsideration of nominative tools that already exist in language (Телия, 1981, с. 117). V.M. Telia classifies the meanings of the secondary nomination units into nominative-derivative (in cases when indirect representation of an extralinguistic object takes place, for example overcoat) and indirect-derivative (when an extralinguistic object is reflected with help of the units that refer to a totally different object in their primary meaning, for example pencil dress) (Телия, 1981).

The basic types of simple nomination in the English language are word-formation, borrowing and word-combination. Attributive and object word-combinations built on the juxtaposition basis (a nasty weather, to ask a question) are the most characteristic of the English language (Левицький, 2001, с. 101; Резвецова, 1989, с. 26).

Word-formation is the basic type of simple nomination in the English language. The end of the 20^th century has been described in contemporary linguistics as the time of neological boom (Зацний, 1997). New means of communication, the acceleration of information exchange together with the worldwide status of the English language have caused the acceleration of dynamic processes in the lexical stock of the English language, the appearance of new word-building models, which has influenced other language levels as well, first of all the morphemic level (the appearance of new affixes). Recent research has proved the anthropocentric character of the majority of new coinages (Андрусяк, 2003; Бялик, 2003; Шиманович, 2002).

Nomination on the word level occurs by means of derivation. Semantic shift takes place during derivation – a new word, in spite of its motivation level, receives a new meaning. “There are no word-formation processes in which semantic shift wouldn’t occur in the secondary unit of nomination compared with the primary one” (Каращук, 1977, с. 10). A relationship of derivation is established between the new (derived) and the generating (formative) words. It is characterized, “first of all by the presence of the formative word (or the base) for every derived word. Secondly, it is characterized by the semantic correlation between the derived and formative words (motivation), and at the same time structurally the derived word is more complex than the formative word. Semantic correlation is associated with semantic shift that is based upon either the reconsideration of categorial affiliation of the formative word (transposition) or its specification. Thirdly, the derivation relationship is characterized by the presence of the word-formation meaning in the derivative word, which is expressed by this or that word-formation device. Fourthly, it is characterized by the division of the derived word into the base and the word-formation element (affix, etc). At the same time derivation can have no formal expression at all (Каращук, 1977, с. 10).

There exist several variants of classification of word-formation devices considering different characteristics.

V.V. Vinogradov classifies word-formation devices into: 1) morphological, to which belong phonetic-morphological derivation, suffixation, prefixation and suffixation-prefixation; 2) syntactic, where belong morphological-syntactic derivation (word-composition and conversion into a different part of speech), lexical-syntactic derivation (lexicalization of word-combinations and idioms); and 3) lexical-semantic derivation (the development of homonyms of the basis of polysemy) (Улуханов, 1996, с. 25).

I.S. Ulouhanov contrasts usual word-formation devices to occasional ones, direct derivation to back-formationn and clear word-formation types to mixed types (Улуханов, 1996, с. 29 – 55).

O.A. Zemskaya divides the word-formation devices into affixal and affixless, and, according to the number of base morphemes, into simple and compound. Among affixal word-formation devices she lists suffixation, prefixation, combined (suffixation-prefixation) word-formation, zero suffixation, suffixation with multiple suffixes, prefixation with zero suffixation and word-composition with zero suffixation. To affixless derivation devices belong word-composition proper, abbreviation, truncation and conversion (Земская, 1973, с. 169-181).

O.I. Smyrnytsky contrasts word-formation devices that include affixation and conversion (inner word-formation) to word-composition as two groups of word-formation devices that are different in principle (Смирницккий, 1956, с. 65-137).

P.M. Karashchuk and others (Каращук, 1977, с. 24-25; Лопатин, 1970, с. 37-301) suggest the classification of word-formation devices based upon the number of the word-forming base morphemes. To the one-base word-formation belong affixation (the word-building device is an affix), conversion (the paradigm of the target word class and its distribution (the combinability with other words in a sentence) are regarded as the word-building devices), substantivation, where the word-building device is the paradigm of the derived word (a noun).

The word-formation devices that use more than one base morpheme are:

1) Composition proper, where the word-formation devices are: the connective morpheme which neutralizes the grammatical meaning of the component (as in Afro-American); a fixed component order; the single major stress on one of the base morphemes.

2) Mixed word-formation types that involve both composition and affixation (baby + sit+>er = babysitter).

3) Combination of base morphemes, where the forming word that consists of two or more components is morphologically equal (in all its forms) to the syntactic combination and thus, the syntactic relation (government, juxtaposition) is preserved in the structure of the derived word. The word-formation devices here are: the single major stress on the syntactically domineering component and the bound word-order (hall + room = hallroom).

4) Abbreviation, where belong all types of shortenings (AFAIK, lol, UNESCO). Here also belongs the type of word-formation called ‘blending’ (Californication). The word-formation device here is the truncation of all or one of the derivative base morphemes, the single stress and single grammatical composition (Каращук, 1977, с. 24-25).

Linguists speak of lexical and syntactic derivation. “According to the classification by Acad. Kurylowicz, accepted in linguistics, the derived words are classified into syntactic derivatives, that preserve the meaning of the formative word and only change its syntactic characteristics (to move – to make a move, edible (adj.) – edibles (n.), a cool day – the cool of the morning), and lexical derivatives that change the semantics of the formative word (a child – childless – childish – childlike, joy – joyful – enjoying)”.

Y.D. Apresjan explains the nature of the syntactic derivatives in the following way: “In the process of syntactic derivation the derived word differs from the formative word not with its lexical meaning, but only with its syntactic qualities. Here belong de-verbal nouns of action and de-adjectival nouns denoting quality, relative adjectives and certain types of de-adjectival adverbs, etc.” (Апресян, 1974, с. 164).

There exist two structurally different groups of word-formation models. N.F. Klymenko makes the difference between the “morphological, or external word-formation where belong: 1) affixation; 2) word-composition or juxtaposition; 3) combination of base morphemes or composition; 4) shortening or abbreviation; and semantic or internal word-formation which consists in semantic changes of lexemes” (Клименко, 1984, с.3).

P.M. Karashchuk after O.S. Koubryakova distinguishes between linear and non-linear derivation models and the derived units are called, accordingly, linear and non-linear derivatives. Linear derivatives possess formal signs of derivation, while non-linear derivatives have no formally expressed signs of derivation (Каращук, 1977, с. 13). O.S. Koubryakova lists among linear models of word-formation the following: word-composition, prefixation, suffixation, mixed derivatives (suffixation-prefixation), abbreviations and acronyms. As the result of linear derivation a number of words have appeared that possess formally-expressed signs of derivation. To non-linear word-formation models belong: conversion, substantivation, adjectivation, etc. (O.S. Koubryakova regards the latter ones as conversion subtypes), phonological changes of the root morpheme or the base, as well as the truncation of the word-changing indices of the word (Кубрякова, 1965, с. 58-73).

Word-formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The line between word formation and semantic change is sometimes a bit blurry; what one person views as a new use of an old word, another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form. Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases.

The basic derivational patterns fall into two groups: linear and non-linear patterns. Linear word-formation is characterized by the change in form, while non-linear word-formation takes place without such changes.

The following types of word-formation belong to the group of linear derivation types:

1. Affixation, i.e. adding a prefix or a suffix to the base morpheme (e.g. atypical, semiprivate, kingdom, morality).

2. Back-formation, i.e. removing seeming affixes from the existing word (e.g. donate from donation, gamble from gambler, haze from hazy).

3. Compounding, i.e. combining two of more base morphemes or words to form a new word (e.g. courtroom, rattlesnake, well-formed, off-white, overlook).

4. Incorporation i.e. building a compound of a verb and an object or particle (e.g. intake, outcome, breastfeed).

5. Reduplication, i.e. forming new words by means of repeating the base form (e.g. go-go (style in fashion), trick-a-track, tick-tack-toe).

6. Blending, i.e. forming a word by mixing two words, like brunch, which comes from breakfast and lunch (entertoyment= toy + entertainment, jetiquette = jet + etiquette) The words, formed by means of blending, are also called portmanteau words.

7. Clipping, i.e. using the initial or rear (sometimes also middle) part of the word (e.g. ad for advertisement, demo for demonstration, doc for doctor, condo for condominium).

8. Abbreviation, i.e. building a new word by using parts of words (mostly, initial) in a word-combination: laser from light amplified by stimulated emission of radiation, Dr. for doctor, e.g. for for example (Lat. exempli gratia).

9. Iconic derivation, i.e. using the letters of the alphabet to denote certain shapes (e.g. T-junction, X-crossing, V-shape).

Non-linear derivation types include:

1. Conversion, i.e. the shift between parts of speech (e.g. to water, to stone, to salt, to eye; a go, a convertible, a look, a squeeze).

2. Compression, i.e. using the first word in a word-combination to denote the phenomenon that was earlier denoted by the whole phrase (e.g. an iron-on instead of an iron-on picture, the poor instead of the poor people).

3. Noun adjunct, i.e. using a noun as a modifier to another noun, like in phrases beef stew, rose bush, wrist watch, computer paper.

4. Metaphor, i.e. meaning transposition or nomination by association based on a similar feature of two unrelated objects (e.g. fishnets as a name of a specific type of stockings, flowerpot skirt, shell suit).

5. Connotation shift, i.e. melioration or pejoration of the initial meaning of the word (e.g. computer nerd or punk that in the subculture context acquire positive coonotation and suggest ‘belonging to the subculture’, awful in the meaning of ‘wonderful’).

Linguists also speak of major and minor derivation types, grouping the kinds of word-formation according to their productivity (Бортничук, 1988). Major derivation types are the ones that are used to build up the core of language vocabulary, being the most productive and most common for the language (e.g. affixation, compounding, conversion). The types of word-formation that build up derivation periphery of the language are described as minor derivation types.

Nonce-words. Some words are created with a very short-term purpose, to serve a current need of the speaker, and they are not expected to recur. A word occurring, invented, or used just for a particular occasion is called a nonce-word. We find many examples of nonce-words in literature, where authors attempt at creative ways of verbal expression. William Faulkner, for example, uses the word mileconsuming in the sentence ‘the wagon beginning to fall into its slow and mileconsuming clatter’.

Nonce words frequently arise through the combination of an existing word with a familiar prefix or suffix, in order to meet a particular need (or as a joke). The result is a special kind of pseudoword: although it would not be found in any dictionary, it is instantly comprehensible (e.g., Bananaphone). If the need recurs (or the joke is widely enjoyed), nonce words easily enter regular use (initially as neologisms) just because their meaning is obvious. Nonce words are often created as part of pop culture and advertising campaigns.

Here are some examples of nonce-words presented by the Wickipedia:

• Tattarrattat by James Joyce in Ulysses (1922).

• Slithy, as a portmanteau of slimy and lithe, chortle as a portmanteau of Chuckle and snort – among several used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky.

• Runcible spoon, from Edward Lear, which later came to describe a curved fork with a cutting edge.

• Unidexter – a one-legged person of the right-legged persuasion, coined by comedian Peter Cook in One Leg Too Few.

• Contrafibularities was one of several nonce words used by the fictional Edmund Blackadder to confuse the lexicographer Samuel Johnson, whom Blackadder despised. Among the others were anaspeptic, phrasmotic, pericombobulations, interphrastically and extramuralization.

• Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious from the movie musical Mary Poppins.

• Kwyjibo used in The Simpsons 'Bart the Genius' in a game of Scrabble, meaning ‘a bald, overweight, North American ape of below average intelligence’.

• Aetataureate coined by Michael Chabon in The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay. Meaning pertaining to a golden age.

• In Kung Pow! Enter the Fist, The Chosen One says that there should be a new stronger word for killing and creates the word badong, a portmanteau of bad and wrong. He goes on to say that he that he will stand for the opposite of killing and creates the word gnodab, a reversal of the letters in badong.

To the group of nonce-words also belong lexicalized word-combinations and sentences that occasionally perform a function of a single lexeme in a sentence: He stared at me with that particular don’t-give-me-that-crap look of his which left no space or hope of further discussion.

Word-combination belongs as well to the sphere of simple nomination. The phenomena denoted by word-combinations are more complicated and detailed than those denoted by single words. Word-combinations, or phrases, may consist of a different number of components. There is a general distinction between two-component and multi-component word-combinations.

Word-combinations differ according to the parts of speech that build them as well as by the semantic roles that their parts play in relation to each other.

A specific type of the word-combination is the phraseologism (idiom). A phraseologism is a word-combination whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal definitions and the arrangement of its parts, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only through conventional use.

Borrowing is the type of nomination which consists in using words of foreign origin in the English language. Borrowed words tend to become fully or partially assimilated with the course of time, acquiring, fully or partially, the paradigm of the English language.

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